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        <H1>Professional ethics and Information Technology</H1>

        <H2>Introduction</H2>
        <P>
                This essay discusses the principles of ethics, both in their specific
                application to the Information Technology profession, and to their
                more general application to professional disciplines. In particular
                the Codes of Ethics of the <EM>Australian Computer Society</EM> (ACS),
                <EM>Association for Computing Machinery</EM> (ACM), and the
                <EM>Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers</EM> (IEEE) are
                examined. The <EM>Australian National University</EM> (ANU) code
                <EM>Academic Honesty in Learning and Teaching</EM> is also examined to
                highlight similarities between issues raised and those raised by the
                above-mentioned professional societies. Finally, two real-world
                scenarios will be presented and discussed within the context of
                professional ethics.
        </P>

        <H2>Generic principles</H2>
        <P>
                There are a number of generic principles common to the various Codes
                of Ethics of the professional societies examined. These principles are
                not necessarily specific to the field of Information Technology, but
                may relevant to many professional disciplines.
        </P>

        <P>
                <DL>
                        <DT><STRONG>Essential moral behaviour</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        The various Codes of Ethics all contain directives regarding
                                        what one could consider basic moral behaviour. Values such as
                                        honesty, integrity, are all specifically referred to. Actions
                                        must also be in the public or community interest, which means
                                        that members of the various societies should take the wider
                                        social implications of their actions into consideration.
                                </P>

                                <P>
                                        This is the core of what makes the Code of Ethics a Code of
                                        Ethics. Basic ethical behaviour is defined in ACS Code of
                                        Ethics in section 4.1. This section specifically mentions the
                                        profession of Information Technology, however there is
                                        nothing IT specific in the rest of this item, so it could be
                                        interchangeable with the medical profession, for example.
                                </P>

                                <P>
                                        Similarly, the ACM breaks its Code of Ethics down into three
                                        broad categories. The first, General Moral Imperatives, could
                                        equally apply to most other professions. The sections
                                        relating to intellectual property are vaguely more
                                        IT-centric, however are still relevant to other professions
                                        that might involve either personal or contracted creativity.
                                </P>
                        </DD>

                        <DT><STRONG>Competence</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        All the Codes of Conduct and Ethics highly value competence.
                                        This is important, as incompetent workmanship can have a poor
                                        reflection on the profession in general, regardless of what
                                        that profession is.
                                </P>

                                <P>
                                        This is closely related to ongoing professional development,
                                        which is discussed next. Competence is an intangible, and as
                                        such difficult to gauge in an individual. It is really up to
                                        the individual to have some sense of self-assessment when it
                                        comes to particular work.
                                </P>
                        </DD>

                        <DT><STRONG>Professional Development</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        For the same reasons as competence, ongoing professional
                                        development is of paramount importance. All the societies
                                        Codes reviewed specifically mention ongoing personal
                                        development, as well as assisting fellow members to further
                                        their development.
                                </P>

                                <P>
                                        This is a significant point of all the Codes of Ethics. There
                                        is little value in being a member of such a professional
                                        society if it does not encourage its members to further
                                        themselves, as professional development is something that
                                        should never cease. It is also important to note that the
                                        Codes state that members should encourage and support each
                                        other in their personal development.
                                </P>
                        </DD>

                        <DT><STRONG>Fairness, equality and objectivity</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        All of the societies Codes examined specifically refer to
                                        conducting oneself in an indiscriminate manner. The ACS
                                        <EM>Code of Professional Conduct and Professional
                                        Practice</EM> states: "Be objective, impartial and free of
                                        conflicts of interest in the performance of your professional
                                        duties" (ACS: 2003). The ACM specifically states that
                                        "equality, tolerance and respect for others are important and
                                        that violations of this policy will not be tolerated" (ACM:
                                        1992), in their Code of Ethics. The IEEE's Code of Ethics
                                        also states that members agree to "treat fairly
                                        all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion,
                                        gender, disability, age or national origin" (IEEE: 1990).
                        </DD>

                        <DT><STRONG>Promotion of the profession</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        Again, one could substitute the name of the profession for
                                        any other, however, the ACS Code of Ethics and Code of
                                        Professional Conduct specifically mention promoting and
                                        protecting the image, and professionalism of Information
                                        Technology and the society in general.
                                </P>

                                <P>
                                        Naturally, any professional society is going to be an
                                        advocacy body for that profession. One would expect to find
                                        such promotion clauses in any professional society's Code of
                                        Ethics.
                                </P>
                        </DD>
                </DL>

        <H2>Principles specific to Information Technology</H2>
        <P>
                There are a number of other principles stated in the various Codes of
                Conduct that are more specific to the field of Information Technology,
                because of the technical nature of the profession, or because they
                relate to technological ethical issues.
        </P>

        <P>
                <DL>
                        <DT><STRONG>Intellectual Property</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        Whilst not strictly related to Information Technology, this
                                        is certainly an issue that crops up more often within this
                                        field.  The ACM Code of Ethics states that property rights
                                        including copyrights and patents should be honoured, and
                                        proper credit should be given for intellectual property. The
                                        IEEE Code of Ethics states that members should credit
                                        properly the contributions of others.  
                                </P>
                                        
                                <P>
                                        Interestingly, neither the ACS Code of Ethics or Code of
                                        Professional Conduct and Professional Practice makes a
                                        reference to "Intellectual Property", but the latter does
                                        state that information is the property of the client, and
                                        must not be distributed freely. One could argue that this is
                                        covered under the section 4.7 of the ACS Code of Ethics
                                        (Honesty), whereby section 4.7.6 states "I must give credit
                                        for work done by others where credit is
                                        due" (ACS: 2003) however, it could be argued successfully
                                        that this is not specific enough to the area of intellectual
                                        property and copyright, not prescriptive enough about when
                                        "credit is due".
                        </DD>

                        <DT><STRONG>Authorised access to computing resources</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        The ACM Code of Conduct specifically mentions "trespassing
                                        and unauthorised use of a computer or communication system"
                                        (ACM: 1992). It goes on to say that individuals have the
                                        right to restrict access insofar as it does not discriminate
                                        unethically (as discussed earlier).
                                </P>
                        </DD>

                        <DT><STRONG>Evaluating computer systems</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        The ACM Code of Ethics has section 2.5 of their More Specific
                                        Professional Responsibilities, which states members must
                                        "give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of
                                        computer systems and their impacts, including analysis of
                                        possible risks" (ACM: 1992) and goes on to state that
                                        computer professionals must be perceptive, thorough and
                                        objective when making evaluations, recommendations and
                                        presentations of system descriptions and alternatives. This
                                        is relevant to the profession of IT, because IT professionals
                                        tend to have their technical opinions viewed highly, as they
                                        are considered subject-matter experts.
                        </DD>
                </DL>

        <H2>Similarities to ANU code</H2>

        <P>
                Whilst having nothing specifically to do with Information Technology,
                the ANU code on <EM>Academic Honesty in Learning and Teaching</EM> has
                a common point with those raised in the Codes of Conduct for the
                various professional societies examined.
        </P>

        <P>
                The most significant common point is of course the moral value of
                being honest. This ANU code of practice defines academic honesty, and
                also goes on to discuss originality and plagiarism. This is identical
                in spirit to the intellectual property clause of the Codes of Ethics
                for the ACM, and the statement of "giving credit where credit is
                due" by the ACS, and properly crediting the contributions of others
                in the IEEE's Code of Ethics.
        </P>

        <P>
                The ANU code also defines the roles and responsibilities of various
                levels of academics within the University, similar to how the various
                societies Codes state that members should assist other members to
                further themselves to be better members. Similarly, University
                academics should provide guidance to students in matters of academic
                honesty.
        </P>

        <H2>Case studies</H2>

        <P>
                In conclusion, two case studies will be discussed. The first one is a
                hypothetical ANU student who attained an IT degree with a lot of
                assistance from his/her friends, doing a lot of collaboration on
                assignment work, and getting good marks for them, but average marks
                for examinations. This student then attains employment somewhere in
                Canberra.
        </P>

        <P>
                The second example is an employee working on an application project. He
                gets a brilliant idea, outside of the scope of the existing project,
                that he believes will make an improvement to this application, and
                other related applications. The contract he has signed states that the
                work carried out on the project belongs to this organisation he is
                working for.
        </P>

        <H3>Case study 1: The average student who had a lot of help from his friends</H3>

        <P>
                This situation is difficult to monitor, and can potentially cause a
                lot of problems.  The negative consequence of this scenario is that
                this student has attained an IT degree that isn't necessarily
                indicative of his/her own abilities. This is most likely going to
                become evident when the employee is unable to conduct themselves
                competently in their field of employment.  The possible victims of
                this negative scenario are both the student/employee and the
                organisation employing him/her.
        </P>

        <P>
                Eventually it is going to come to the point where the employee has to
                gain sufficient competence to carry out his/her employment, or the
                employer has to cease employing the student, due to their
                incompetence. This ultimately boils down to misrepresentation, in that
                the student didn't accurately represent their competence to the
                employer in the first place.
        </P>

        <P>
                The negative repercussions could be more significant depending on the
                nature of the employment of the student. If the student was engaged in
                a role that may have a direct impact on the public, this incompetence
                could, in the worst case, directly impact on other peoples lives.
        </P>

        <P>
                The other victim is the ANU, as whilst the student is seen to have
                exited successfully from one of its degree programs, the student's
                actual competency is probably lower than the employer would expect for
                a degree-holder. This then lowers the value of a degree in the
                employer's view, and gives the potential for employers to hold ANU
                graduates in lower regard than perhaps they should me.
        </P>

        <H3>Case study 2: The employee with the work-related brilliant idea</H3>

        <P>
                In the case of the employee with the brilliant idea, if it is just an
                idea, the organisation he works for cannot readily claim ownership of
                it. If the employee develops anything on company time or resources,
                based on that idea, then it rightly becomes property of the
                organisation. If this is the case, and the employee wishes to take the
                idea outside of the organisation, the only ethical thing to do would
                be to seek permission from the employer to do so.  Anything less would
                constitute theft of the organisation's intellectual property.
        </P>

        <P>
                There is nothing stopping the employee from using the idea for
                improvement within the company he is working for, though. If the idea
                he has had can be applied to other projects within his organisation,
                then he is only being dilligent by raising the idea as an enhancement
                to existing processes.
        </P>

        <H2>Bibliography</H2>

        <P>
                ACS Code of Ethics, Australian Computing Society, 2003,
                http://www.acs.org.au/static/national/pospaper/acs131.htm
        </P>

        <P>
                ACS Code of Professional Conduct And Professional Ethics, Australian
                Computing Society, 2003,
                http://www.acs.org.au/static/national/pospaper/codeprof.htm
        </P>

        <P>
                ACM Code of Ethics, Association for Computing Machinery, 1992,
                http://www.acm.org/serving/se/code.htm
        </P>
        
        <P>
                IEEE Code of Ethics, Institute of Electrical and Electronic
                Engineers, 1990,
                http://www.ieee.org/portal/index.jsp?pageID=corp_level1&amp;path=about/whatis&amp;file=code.xml&amp;xsl=generic.xsl
        </P>

        <P>
                Academic Honesty in Learning and Teaching, The Australian National
                University, 2003,
                http://info.anu.edu.au/policies/Codes_Of_Practice/Education/Other/Academic_Honesty.asp
        </P>
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5	I declare that, except where appropriately attributed, the content of the file
6	I have submitted for this assignment is entirely my own work. It has not been
7	produced, in whole or in part, by another person. (signed) Andrew Pollock
8	-->
9	<HTML>
10
11	<HEAD>
12	<TITLE>Professional ethics and Information Technology</TITLE>
13	<META name="Author" content="Andrew Pollock">
14	<META name="Student_Number" content="4137129">
15	<META name="Lab_Group" content="">
16	<META http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
17	<!-- In vim, best viewed with a tabstop setting of 3 (:set ts=3) -->
18	</HEAD>
19
20	<BODY bgcolor="white">
21	<H1>Professional ethics and Information Technology</H1>
22
23	<H2>Introduction</H2>
24	<P>
25	This essay discusses the principles of ethics, both in their specific
26	application to the Information Technology profession, and to their
27	more general application to professional disciplines. In particular
28	the Codes of Ethics of the <EM>Australian Computer Society</EM> (ACS),
29	<EM>Association for Computing Machinery</EM> (ACM), and the
30	<EM>Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers</EM> (IEEE) are
31	examined. The <EM>Australian National University</EM> (ANU) code
32	<EM>Academic Honesty in Learning and Teaching</EM> is also examined to
33	highlight similarities between issues raised and those raised by the
34	above-mentioned professional societies. Finally, two real-world
35	scenarios will be presented and discussed within the context of
36	professional ethics.
37	</P>
38
39	<H2>Generic principles</H2>
40	<P>
41	There are a number of generic principles common to the various Codes
42	of Ethics of the professional societies examined. These principles are
43	not necessarily specific to the field of Information Technology, but
44	may relevant to many professional disciplines.
45	</P>
46
47	<P>
48	<DL>
49	<DT><STRONG>Essential moral behaviour</STRONG></DT>
50	<DD>
51	<P>
52	The various Codes of Ethics all contain directives regarding
53	what one could consider basic moral behaviour. Values such as
54	honesty, integrity, are all specifically referred to. Actions
55	must also be in the public or community interest, which means
56	that members of the various societies should take the wider
57	social implications of their actions into consideration.
58	</P>
59
60	<P>
61	This is the core of what makes the Code of Ethics a Code of
62	Ethics. Basic ethical behaviour is defined in ACS Code of
63	Ethics in section 4.1. This section specifically mentions the
64	profession of Information Technology, however there is
65	nothing IT specific in the rest of this item, so it could be
66	interchangeable with the medical profession, for example.
67	</P>
68
69	<P>
70	Similarly, the ACM breaks its Code of Ethics down into three
71	broad categories. The first, General Moral Imperatives, could
72	equally apply to most other professions. The sections
73	relating to intellectual property are vaguely more
74	IT-centric, however are still relevant to other professions
75	that might involve either personal or contracted creativity.
76	</P>
77	</DD>
78
79	<DT><STRONG>Competence</STRONG></DT>
80	<DD>
81	<P>
82	All the Codes of Conduct and Ethics highly value competence.
83	This is important, as incompetent workmanship can have a poor
84	reflection on the profession in general, regardless of what
85	that profession is.
86	</P>
87
88	<P>
89	This is closely related to ongoing professional development,
90	which is discussed next. Competence is an intangible, and as
91	such difficult to gauge in an individual. It is really up to
92	the individual to have some sense of self-assessment when it
93	comes to particular work.
94	</P>
95	</DD>
96
97	<DT><STRONG>Professional Development</STRONG></DT>
98	<DD>
99	<P>
100	For the same reasons as competence, ongoing professional
101	development is of paramount importance. All the societies
102	Codes reviewed specifically mention ongoing personal
103	development, as well as assisting fellow members to further
104	their development.
105	</P>
106
107	<P>
108	This is a significant point of all the Codes of Ethics. There
109	is little value in being a member of such a professional
110	society if it does not encourage its members to further
111	themselves, as professional development is something that
112	should never cease. It is also important to note that the
113	Codes state that members should encourage and support each
114	other in their personal development.
115	</P>
116	</DD>
117
118	<DT><STRONG>Fairness, equality and objectivity</STRONG></DT>
119	<DD>
120	<P>
121	All of the societies Codes examined specifically refer to
122	conducting oneself in an indiscriminate manner. The ACS
123	<EM>Code of Professional Conduct and Professional
124	Practice</EM> states: "Be objective, impartial and free of
125	conflicts of interest in the performance of your professional
126	duties" (ACS: 2003). The ACM specifically states that
127	"equality, tolerance and respect for others are important and
128	that violations of this policy will not be tolerated" (ACM:
129	1992), in their Code of Ethics. The IEEE's Code of Ethics
130	also states that members agree to "treat fairly
131	all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion,
132	gender, disability, age or national origin" (IEEE: 1990).
133	</DD>
134
135	<DT><STRONG>Promotion of the profession</STRONG></DT>
136	<DD>
137	<P>
138	Again, one could substitute the name of the profession for
139	any other, however, the ACS Code of Ethics and Code of
140	Professional Conduct specifically mention promoting and
141	protecting the image, and professionalism of Information
142	Technology and the society in general.
143	</P>
144
145	<P>
146	Naturally, any professional society is going to be an
147	advocacy body for that profession. One would expect to find
148	such promotion clauses in any professional society's Code of
149	Ethics.
150	</P>
151	</DD>
152	</DL>
153
154	<H2>Principles specific to Information Technology</H2>
155	<P>
156	There are a number of other principles stated in the various Codes of
157	Conduct that are more specific to the field of Information Technology,
158	because of the technical nature of the profession, or because they
159	relate to technological ethical issues.
160	</P>
161
162	<P>
163	<DL>
164	<DT><STRONG>Intellectual Property</STRONG></DT>
165	<DD>
166	<P>
167	Whilst not strictly related to Information Technology, this
168	is certainly an issue that crops up more often within this
169	field. The ACM Code of Ethics states that property rights
170	including copyrights and patents should be honoured, and
171	proper credit should be given for intellectual property. The
172	IEEE Code of Ethics states that members should credit
173	properly the contributions of others.
174	</P>
175
176	<P>
177	Interestingly, neither the ACS Code of Ethics or Code of
178	Professional Conduct and Professional Practice makes a
179	reference to "Intellectual Property", but the latter does
180	state that information is the property of the client, and
181	must not be distributed freely. One could argue that this is
182	covered under the section 4.7 of the ACS Code of Ethics
183	(Honesty), whereby section 4.7.6 states "I must give credit
184	for work done by others where credit is
185	due" (ACS: 2003) however, it could be argued successfully
186	that this is not specific enough to the area of intellectual
187	property and copyright, not prescriptive enough about when
188	"credit is due".
189	</DD>
190
191	<DT><STRONG>Authorised access to computing resources</STRONG></DT>
192	<DD>
193	<P>
194	The ACM Code of Conduct specifically mentions "trespassing
195	and unauthorised use of a computer or communication system"
196	(ACM: 1992). It goes on to say that individuals have the
197	right to restrict access insofar as it does not discriminate
198	unethically (as discussed earlier).
199	</P>
200	</DD>
201
202	<DT><STRONG>Evaluating computer systems</STRONG></DT>
203	<DD>
204	<P>
205	The ACM Code of Ethics has section 2.5 of their More Specific
206	Professional Responsibilities, which states members must
207	"give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of
208	computer systems and their impacts, including analysis of
209	possible risks" (ACM: 1992) and goes on to state that
210	computer professionals must be perceptive, thorough and
211	objective when making evaluations, recommendations and
212	presentations of system descriptions and alternatives. This
213	is relevant to the profession of IT, because IT professionals
214	tend to have their technical opinions viewed highly, as they
215	are considered subject-matter experts.
216	</DD>
217	</DL>
218
219	<H2>Similarities to ANU code</H2>
220
221	<P>
222	Whilst having nothing specifically to do with Information Technology,
223	the ANU code on <EM>Academic Honesty in Learning and Teaching</EM> has
224	a common point with those raised in the Codes of Conduct for the
225	various professional societies examined.
226	</P>
227
228	<P>
229	The most significant common point is of course the moral value of
230	being honest. This ANU code of practice defines academic honesty, and
231	also goes on to discuss originality and plagiarism. This is identical
232	in spirit to the intellectual property clause of the Codes of Ethics
233	for the ACM, and the statement of "giving credit where credit is
234	due" by the ACS, and properly crediting the contributions of others
235	in the IEEE's Code of Ethics.
236	</P>
237
238	<P>
239	The ANU code also defines the roles and responsibilities of various
240	levels of academics within the University, similar to how the various
241	societies Codes state that members should assist other members to
242	further themselves to be better members. Similarly, University
243	academics should provide guidance to students in matters of academic
244	honesty.
245	</P>
246
247	<H2>Case studies</H2>
248
249	<P>
250	In conclusion, two case studies will be discussed. The first one is a
251	hypothetical ANU student who attained an IT degree with a lot of
252	assistance from his/her friends, doing a lot of collaboration on
253	assignment work, and getting good marks for them, but average marks
254	for examinations. This student then attains employment somewhere in
255	Canberra.
256	</P>
257
258	<P>
259	The second example is an employee working on an application project. He
260	gets a brilliant idea, outside of the scope of the existing project,
261	that he believes will make an improvement to this application, and
262	other related applications. The contract he has signed states that the
263	work carried out on the project belongs to this organisation he is
264	working for.
265	</P>
266
267	<H3>Case study 1: The average student who had a lot of help from his friends</H3>
268
269	<P>
270	This situation is difficult to monitor, and can potentially cause a
271	lot of problems. The negative consequence of this scenario is that
272	this student has attained an IT degree that isn't necessarily
273	indicative of his/her own abilities. This is most likely going to
274	become evident when the employee is unable to conduct themselves
275	competently in their field of employment. The possible victims of
276	this negative scenario are both the student/employee and the
277	organisation employing him/her.
278	</P>
279
280	<P>
281	Eventually it is going to come to the point where the employee has to
282	gain sufficient competence to carry out his/her employment, or the
283	employer has to cease employing the student, due to their
284	incompetence. This ultimately boils down to misrepresentation, in that
285	the student didn't accurately represent their competence to the
286	employer in the first place.
287	</P>
288
289	<P>
290	The negative repercussions could be more significant depending on the
291	nature of the employment of the student. If the student was engaged in
292	a role that may have a direct impact on the public, this incompetence
293	could, in the worst case, directly impact on other peoples lives.
294	</P>
295
296	<P>
297	The other victim is the ANU, as whilst the student is seen to have
298	exited successfully from one of its degree programs, the student's
299	actual competency is probably lower than the employer would expect for
300	a degree-holder. This then lowers the value of a degree in the
301	employer's view, and gives the potential for employers to hold ANU
302	graduates in lower regard than perhaps they should me.
303	</P>
304
305	<H3>Case study 2: The employee with the work-related brilliant idea</H3>
306
307	<P>
308	In the case of the employee with the brilliant idea, if it is just an
309	idea, the organisation he works for cannot readily claim ownership of
310	it. If the employee develops anything on company time or resources,
311	based on that idea, then it rightly becomes property of the
312	organisation. If this is the case, and the employee wishes to take the
313	idea outside of the organisation, the only ethical thing to do would
314	be to seek permission from the employer to do so. Anything less would
315	constitute theft of the organisation's intellectual property.
316	</P>
317
318	<P>
319	There is nothing stopping the employee from using the idea for
320	improvement within the company he is working for, though. If the idea
321	he has had can be applied to other projects within his organisation,
322	then he is only being dilligent by raising the idea as an enhancement
323	to existing processes.
324	</P>
325
326	<H2>Bibliography</H2>
327
328	<P>
329	ACS Code of Ethics, Australian Computing Society, 2003,
330	http://www.acs.org.au/static/national/pospaper/acs131.htm
331	</P>
332
333	<P>
334	ACS Code of Professional Conduct And Professional Ethics, Australian
335	Computing Society, 2003,
336	http://www.acs.org.au/static/national/pospaper/codeprof.htm
337	</P>
338
339	<P>
340	ACM Code of Ethics, Association for Computing Machinery, 1992,
341	http://www.acm.org/serving/se/code.htm
342	</P>
343
344	<P>
345	IEEE Code of Ethics, Institute of Electrical and Electronic
346	Engineers, 1990,
347	http://www.ieee.org/portal/index.jsp?pageID=corp_level1&path=about/whatis&file=code.xml&xsl=generic.xsl
348	</P>
349
350	<P>
351	Academic Honesty in Learning and Teaching, The Australian National
352	University, 2003,
353	http://info.anu.edu.au/policies/Codes_Of_Practice/Education/Other/Academic_Honesty.asp
354	</P>
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356
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