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        <TITLE>Professional ethics and Information Technology</TITLE>
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        <H1>Professional ethics and Information Technology</H1>

        <H2>Introduction</H2>
        <P>
                This essay discusses the principles of ethics, both in their specific
                application to the Information Technology profession, and to their
                more general application to professional disciplines. In particular
                the Codes of Ethics of the <EM>Australian Computer Society</EM> (ACS),
                <EM>Association for Computing Machinery</EM> (ACM), and the
                <EM>Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers</EM> (IEEE) are
                examined. The <EM>Australian National University</EM> (ANU) code
                <EM>Academic Honesty in Learning and Teaching</EM> is also examined to
                highlight similarities between issues raised and those raised by the
                above-mentioned professional societies. Finally, two real-world
                scenarios will be presented and discussed within the context of
                professional ethics.
        </P>

        <H2>Generic principles</H2>
        <P>
                There are a number of generic principles common to the various Codes
                of Ethics of the professional societies examined. These principles are
                not necessarily specific to the field of Information Technology, but
                may relevant to many professional disciplines.
        </P>

        <P>
                <DL>
                        <DT><STRONG>Essential moral behaviour</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        The various Codes of Ethics all contain directives regarding
                                        what one could consider basic moral behaviour. Values such as
                                        honesty, integrity, are all specifically referred to. Actions
                                        must also be in the public or community interest, which means
                                        that members of the various societies should take the wider
                                        social implications of their actions into consideration.
                                </P>

                                <P>
                                        This is the core of what makes the Code of Ethics a Code of
                                        Ethics. Basic ethical behaviour is defined in ACS Code of
                                        Ethics in section 4.1. This section specifically mentions the
                                        profession of Information Technology, however there is
                                        nothing IT specific in the rest of this item, so it could be
                                        interchangeable with the medical profession, for example.
                                </P>

                                <P>
                                        Similarly, the ACM breaks its Code of Ethics down into three
                                        broad categories. The first, General Moral Imperatives, could
                                        equally apply to most other professions. The sections
                                        relating to intellectual property are vaguely more
                                        IT-centric, however are still relevant to other professions
                                        that might involve either personal or contracted creativity.
                                </P>
                        </DD>

                        <DT><STRONG>Competence</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        All the Codes of Conduct and Ethics highly value competence.
                                        This is important, as incompetent workmanship can have a poor
                                        reflection on the profession in general, regardless of what
                                        that profession is.
                                </P>

                                <P>
                                        This is closely related to ongoing professional development,
                                        which is discussed next. Competence is an intangible, and as
                                        such difficult to gauge in an individual. It is really up to
                                        the individual to have some sense of self-assessment when it
                                        comes to particular work.
                                </P>
                        </DD>

                        <DT><STRONG>Professional Development</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        For the same reasons as competence, ongoing professional
                                        development is of paramount importance. All the societies
                                        Codes reviewed specifically mention ongoing personal
                                        development, as well as assisting fellow members to further
                                        their development.
                                </P>

                                <P>
                                        This is a significant point of all the Codes of Ethics. There
                                        is little value in being a member of such a professional
                                        society if it does not encourage its members to further
                                        themselves, as professional development is something that
                                        should never cease. It is also important to note that the
                                        Codes state that members should encourage and support each
                                        other in their personal development.
                                </P>
                        </DD>

                        <DT><STRONG>Fairness, equality and objectivity</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        All of the societies Codes examined specifically refer to
                                        conducting oneself in an indiscriminate manner. The ACS
                                        <EM>Code of Professional Conduct and Professional
                                        Practice</EM> states: "Be objective, impartial and free of
                                        conflicts of interest in the performance of your professional
                                        duties" (ACS: 2003). The ACM specifically states that
                                        "equality, tolerance and respect for others are important and
                                        that violations of this policy will not be tolerated" (ACM:
                                        1992), in their Code of Ethics. The IEEE's Code of Ethics
                                        also states that members agree to "treat fairly
                                        all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion,
                                        gender, disability, age or national origin" (IEEE: 1990).
                        </DD>

                        <DT><STRONG>Promotion of the profession</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        Again, one could substitute the name of the profession for
                                        any other, however, the ACS Code of Ethics and Code of
                                        Professional Conduct specifically mention promoting and
                                        protecting the image, and professionalism of Information
                                        Technology and the society in general.
                                </P>

                                <P>
                                        Naturally, any professional society is going to be an
                                        advocacy body for that profession. One would expect to find
                                        such promotion clauses in any professional society's Code of
                                        Ethics.
                                </P>
                        </DD>
                </DL>

        <H2>Principles specific to Information Technology</H2>
        <P>
                There are a number of other principles stated in the various Codes of
                Conduct that are more specific to the field of Information Technology,
                because of the technical nature of the profession, or because they
                relate to technological ethical issues.
        </P>

        <P>
                <DL>
                        <DT><STRONG>Intellectual Property</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        Whilst not strictly related to Information Technology, this
                                        is certainly an issue that crops up more often within this
                                        field.  The ACM Code of Ethics states that property rights
                                        including copyrights and patents should be honoured, and
                                        proper credit should be given for intellectual property. The
                                        IEEE Code of Ethics states that members should credit
                                        properly the contributions of others.  
                                </P>
                                        
                                <P>
                                        Interestingly, neither the ACS Code of Ethics or Code of
                                        Professional Conduct and Professional Practice makes a
                                        reference to "Intellectual Property", but the latter does
                                        state that information is the property of the client, and
                                        must not be distributed freely. One could argue that this is
                                        covered under the section 4.7 of the ACS Code of Ethics
                                        (Honesty), whereby section 4.7.6 states "I must give credit
                                        for work done by others where credit is
                                        due" (ACS: 2003) however, it could be argued successfully
                                        that this is not specific enough to the area of intellectual
                                        property and copyright, not prescriptive enough about when
                                        "credit is due".
                        </DD>

                        <DT><STRONG>Authorised access to computing resources</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        The ACM Code of Conduct specifically mentions "trespassing
                                        and unauthorised use of a computer or communication system"
                                        (ACM: 1992). It goes on to say that individuals have the
                                        right to restrict access insofar as it does not discriminate
                                        unethically (as discussed earlier).
                                </P>
                        </DD>

                        <DT><STRONG>Evaluating computer systems</STRONG></DT>
                        <DD>
                                <P>
                                        The ACM Code of Ethics has section 2.5 of their More Specific
                                        Professional Responsibilities, which states members must
                                        "give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of
                                        computer systems and their impacts, including analysis of
                                        possible risks" (ACM: 1992) and goes on to state that
                                        computer professionals must be perceptive, thorough and
                                        objective when making evaluations, recommendations and
                                        presentations of system descriptions and alternatives. This
                                        is relevant to the profession of IT, because IT professionals
                                        tend to have their technical opinions viewed highly, as they
                                        are considered subject-matter experts.
                        </DD>
                </DL>

        <H2>Similarities to ANU code</H2>

        <P>
                Whilst having nothing specifically to do with Information Technology,
                the ANU code on <EM>Academic Honesty in Learning and Teaching</EM> has
                a common point with those raised in the Codes of Conduct for the
                various professional societies examined.
        </P>

        <P>
                The most significant common point is of course the moral value of
                being honest. This ANU code of practice defines academic honesty, and
                also goes on to discuss originality and plagiarism. This is identical
                in spirit to the intellectual property clause of the Codes of Ethics
                for the ACM, and the statement of "giving credit where credit is
                due" by the ACS, and properly crediting the contributions of others
                in the IEEE's Code of Ethics.
        </P>

        <P>
                The ANU code also defines the roles and responsibilities of various
                levels of academics within the University, similar to how the various
                societies Codes state that members should assist other members to
                further themselves to be better members. Similarly, University
                academics should provide guidance to students in matters of academic
                honesty.
        </P>

        <H2>Case studies</H2>

        <P>
                In conclusion, two case studies will be discussed. The first one is a
                hypothetical ANU student who attained an IT degree with a lot of
                assistance from his/her friends, doing a lot of collaboration on
                assignment work, and getting good marks for them, but average marks
                for examinations. This student then attains employment somewhere in
                Canberra.
        </P>

        <P>
                The second example is an employee working on an application project. He
                gets a brilliant idea, outside of the scope of the existing project,
                that he believes will make an improvement to this application, and
                other related applications. The contract he has signed states that the
                work carried out on the project belongs to this organisation he is
                working for.
        </P>

        <H3>Case study 1: The average student who had a lot of help from his friends</H3>

        <P>
                This situation is difficult to monitor, and can potentially cause a
                lot of problems.  The negative consequence of this scenario is that
                this student has attained an IT degree that isn't necessarily
                indicative of his/her own abilities. This is most likely going to
                become evident when the employee is unable to conduct themselves
                competently in their field of employment.  The possible victims of
                this negative scenario are both the student/employee and the
                organisation employing him/her.
        </P>

        <P>
                Eventually it is going to come to the point where the employee has to
                gain sufficient competence to carry out his/her employment, or the
                employer has to cease employing the student, due to their
                incompetence. This ultimately boils down to misrepresentation, in that
                the student didn't accurately represent their competence to the
                employer in the first place.
        </P>

        <P>
                The negative repercussions could be more significant depending on the
                nature of the employment of the student. If the student was engaged in
                a role that may have a direct impact on the public, this incompetence
                could, in the worst case, directly impact on other peoples lives.
        </P>

        <P>
                The other victim is the ANU, as whilst the student is seen to have
                exited successfully from one of its degree programs, the student's
                actual competency is probably lower than the employer would expect for
                a degree-holder. This then lowers the value of a degree in the
                employer's view, and gives the potential for employers to hold ANU
                graduates in lower regard than perhaps they should me.
        </P>

        <H3>Case study 2: The employee with the work-related brilliant idea</H3>

        <P>
                In the case of the employee with the brilliant idea, if it is just an
                idea, the organisation he works for cannot readily claim ownership of
                it. If the employee develops anything on company time or resources,
                based on that idea, then it rightly becomes property of the
                organisation. If this is the case, and the employee wishes to take the
                idea outside of the organisation, the only ethical thing to do would
                be to seek permission from the employer to do so.  Anything less would
                constitute theft of the organisation's intellectual property.
        </P>

        <P>
                There is nothing stopping the employee from using the idea for
                improvement within the company he is working for, though. If the idea
                he has had can be applied to other projects within his organisation,
                then he is only being dilligent by raising the idea as an enhancement
                to existing processes.
        </P>

        <H2>Bibliography</H2>

        <P>
                ACS Code of Ethics, Australian Computing Society, 2003,
                http://www.acs.org.au/static/national/pospaper/acs131.htm
        </P>

        <P>
                ACS Code of Professional Conduct And Professional Ethics, Australian
                Computing Society, 2003,
                http://www.acs.org.au/static/national/pospaper/codeprof.htm
        </P>

        <P>
                ACM Code of Ethics, Association for Computing Machinery, 1992,
                http://www.acm.org/serving/se/code.htm
        </P>
        
        <P>
                IEEE Code of Ethics, Institute of Electrical and Electronic
                Engineers, 1990,
                http://www.ieee.org/portal/index.jsp?pageID=corp_level1&path=about/whatis&file=code.xml&xsl=generic.xsl
        </P>

        <P>
                Academic Honesty in Learning and Teaching, The Australian National
                University, 2003,
                http://info.anu.edu.au/policies/Codes_Of_Practice/Education/Other/Academic_Honesty.asp
        </P>
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4	<!--
5	I declare that, except where appropriately attributed, the content of the file
6	I have submitted for this assignment is entirely my own work. It has not been
7	produced, in whole or in part, by another person. (signed) Andrew Pollock
8	-->
9	<HTML>
10
11	<HEAD>
12	<TITLE>Professional ethics and Information Technology</TITLE>
13	<META name="Author" content="Andrew Pollock">
14	<META name="Student_Number" content="4137129">
15	<META name="Lab_Group" content="">
16	<!-- In vim, best viewed with a tabstop setting of 3 (:set ts=3) -->
17	</HEAD>
18
19	<BODY bgcolor="white">
20	<H1>Professional ethics and Information Technology</H1>
21
22	<H2>Introduction</H2>
23	<P>
24	This essay discusses the principles of ethics, both in their specific
25	application to the Information Technology profession, and to their
26	more general application to professional disciplines. In particular
27	the Codes of Ethics of the <EM>Australian Computer Society</EM> (ACS),
28	<EM>Association for Computing Machinery</EM> (ACM), and the
29	<EM>Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers</EM> (IEEE) are
30	examined. The <EM>Australian National University</EM> (ANU) code
31	<EM>Academic Honesty in Learning and Teaching</EM> is also examined to
32	highlight similarities between issues raised and those raised by the
33	above-mentioned professional societies. Finally, two real-world
34	scenarios will be presented and discussed within the context of
35	professional ethics.
36	</P>
37
38	<H2>Generic principles</H2>
39	<P>
40	There are a number of generic principles common to the various Codes
41	of Ethics of the professional societies examined. These principles are
42	not necessarily specific to the field of Information Technology, but
43	may relevant to many professional disciplines.
44	</P>
45
46	<P>
47	<DL>
48	<DT><STRONG>Essential moral behaviour</STRONG></DT>
49	<DD>
50	<P>
51	The various Codes of Ethics all contain directives regarding
52	what one could consider basic moral behaviour. Values such as
53	honesty, integrity, are all specifically referred to. Actions
54	must also be in the public or community interest, which means
55	that members of the various societies should take the wider
56	social implications of their actions into consideration.
57	</P>
58
59	<P>
60	This is the core of what makes the Code of Ethics a Code of
61	Ethics. Basic ethical behaviour is defined in ACS Code of
62	Ethics in section 4.1. This section specifically mentions the
63	profession of Information Technology, however there is
64	nothing IT specific in the rest of this item, so it could be
65	interchangeable with the medical profession, for example.
66	</P>
67
68	<P>
69	Similarly, the ACM breaks its Code of Ethics down into three
70	broad categories. The first, General Moral Imperatives, could
71	equally apply to most other professions. The sections
72	relating to intellectual property are vaguely more
73	IT-centric, however are still relevant to other professions
74	that might involve either personal or contracted creativity.
75	</P>
76	</DD>
77
78	<DT><STRONG>Competence</STRONG></DT>
79	<DD>
80	<P>
81	All the Codes of Conduct and Ethics highly value competence.
82	This is important, as incompetent workmanship can have a poor
83	reflection on the profession in general, regardless of what
84	that profession is.
85	</P>
86
87	<P>
88	This is closely related to ongoing professional development,
89	which is discussed next. Competence is an intangible, and as
90	such difficult to gauge in an individual. It is really up to
91	the individual to have some sense of self-assessment when it
92	comes to particular work.
93	</P>
94	</DD>
95
96	<DT><STRONG>Professional Development</STRONG></DT>
97	<DD>
98	<P>
99	For the same reasons as competence, ongoing professional
100	development is of paramount importance. All the societies
101	Codes reviewed specifically mention ongoing personal
102	development, as well as assisting fellow members to further
103	their development.
104	</P>
105
106	<P>
107	This is a significant point of all the Codes of Ethics. There
108	is little value in being a member of such a professional
109	society if it does not encourage its members to further
110	themselves, as professional development is something that
111	should never cease. It is also important to note that the
112	Codes state that members should encourage and support each
113	other in their personal development.
114	</P>
115	</DD>
116
117	<DT><STRONG>Fairness, equality and objectivity</STRONG></DT>
118	<DD>
119	<P>
120	All of the societies Codes examined specifically refer to
121	conducting oneself in an indiscriminate manner. The ACS
122	<EM>Code of Professional Conduct and Professional
123	Practice</EM> states: "Be objective, impartial and free of
124	conflicts of interest in the performance of your professional
125	duties" (ACS: 2003). The ACM specifically states that
126	"equality, tolerance and respect for others are important and
127	that violations of this policy will not be tolerated" (ACM:
128	1992), in their Code of Ethics. The IEEE's Code of Ethics
129	also states that members agree to "treat fairly
130	all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion,
131	gender, disability, age or national origin" (IEEE: 1990).
132	</DD>
133
134	<DT><STRONG>Promotion of the profession</STRONG></DT>
135	<DD>
136	<P>
137	Again, one could substitute the name of the profession for
138	any other, however, the ACS Code of Ethics and Code of
139	Professional Conduct specifically mention promoting and
140	protecting the image, and professionalism of Information
141	Technology and the society in general.
142	</P>
143
144	<P>
145	Naturally, any professional society is going to be an
146	advocacy body for that profession. One would expect to find
147	such promotion clauses in any professional society's Code of
148	Ethics.
149	</P>
150	</DD>
151	</DL>
152
153	<H2>Principles specific to Information Technology</H2>
154	<P>
155	There are a number of other principles stated in the various Codes of
156	Conduct that are more specific to the field of Information Technology,
157	because of the technical nature of the profession, or because they
158	relate to technological ethical issues.
159	</P>
160
161	<P>
162	<DL>
163	<DT><STRONG>Intellectual Property</STRONG></DT>
164	<DD>
165	<P>
166	Whilst not strictly related to Information Technology, this
167	is certainly an issue that crops up more often within this
168	field. The ACM Code of Ethics states that property rights
169	including copyrights and patents should be honoured, and
170	proper credit should be given for intellectual property. The
171	IEEE Code of Ethics states that members should credit
172	properly the contributions of others.
173	</P>
174
175	<P>
176	Interestingly, neither the ACS Code of Ethics or Code of
177	Professional Conduct and Professional Practice makes a
178	reference to "Intellectual Property", but the latter does
179	state that information is the property of the client, and
180	must not be distributed freely. One could argue that this is
181	covered under the section 4.7 of the ACS Code of Ethics
182	(Honesty), whereby section 4.7.6 states "I must give credit
183	for work done by others where credit is
184	due" (ACS: 2003) however, it could be argued successfully
185	that this is not specific enough to the area of intellectual
186	property and copyright, not prescriptive enough about when
187	"credit is due".
188	</DD>
189
190	<DT><STRONG>Authorised access to computing resources</STRONG></DT>
191	<DD>
192	<P>
193	The ACM Code of Conduct specifically mentions "trespassing
194	and unauthorised use of a computer or communication system"
195	(ACM: 1992). It goes on to say that individuals have the
196	right to restrict access insofar as it does not discriminate
197	unethically (as discussed earlier).
198	</P>
199	</DD>
200
201	<DT><STRONG>Evaluating computer systems</STRONG></DT>
202	<DD>
203	<P>
204	The ACM Code of Ethics has section 2.5 of their More Specific
205	Professional Responsibilities, which states members must
206	"give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of
207	computer systems and their impacts, including analysis of
208	possible risks" (ACM: 1992) and goes on to state that
209	computer professionals must be perceptive, thorough and
210	objective when making evaluations, recommendations and
211	presentations of system descriptions and alternatives. This
212	is relevant to the profession of IT, because IT professionals
213	tend to have their technical opinions viewed highly, as they
214	are considered subject-matter experts.
215	</DD>
216	</DL>
217
218	<H2>Similarities to ANU code</H2>
219
220	<P>
221	Whilst having nothing specifically to do with Information Technology,
222	the ANU code on <EM>Academic Honesty in Learning and Teaching</EM> has
223	a common point with those raised in the Codes of Conduct for the
224	various professional societies examined.
225	</P>
226
227	<P>
228	The most significant common point is of course the moral value of
229	being honest. This ANU code of practice defines academic honesty, and
230	also goes on to discuss originality and plagiarism. This is identical
231	in spirit to the intellectual property clause of the Codes of Ethics
232	for the ACM, and the statement of "giving credit where credit is
233	due" by the ACS, and properly crediting the contributions of others
234	in the IEEE's Code of Ethics.
235	</P>
236
237	<P>
238	The ANU code also defines the roles and responsibilities of various
239	levels of academics within the University, similar to how the various
240	societies Codes state that members should assist other members to
241	further themselves to be better members. Similarly, University
242	academics should provide guidance to students in matters of academic
243	honesty.
244	</P>
245
246	<H2>Case studies</H2>
247
248	<P>
249	In conclusion, two case studies will be discussed. The first one is a
250	hypothetical ANU student who attained an IT degree with a lot of
251	assistance from his/her friends, doing a lot of collaboration on
252	assignment work, and getting good marks for them, but average marks
253	for examinations. This student then attains employment somewhere in
254	Canberra.
255	</P>
256
257	<P>
258	The second example is an employee working on an application project. He
259	gets a brilliant idea, outside of the scope of the existing project,
260	that he believes will make an improvement to this application, and
261	other related applications. The contract he has signed states that the
262	work carried out on the project belongs to this organisation he is
263	working for.
264	</P>
265
266	<H3>Case study 1: The average student who had a lot of help from his friends</H3>
267
268	<P>
269	This situation is difficult to monitor, and can potentially cause a
270	lot of problems. The negative consequence of this scenario is that
271	this student has attained an IT degree that isn't necessarily
272	indicative of his/her own abilities. This is most likely going to
273	become evident when the employee is unable to conduct themselves
274	competently in their field of employment. The possible victims of
275	this negative scenario are both the student/employee and the
276	organisation employing him/her.
277	</P>
278
279	<P>
280	Eventually it is going to come to the point where the employee has to
281	gain sufficient competence to carry out his/her employment, or the
282	employer has to cease employing the student, due to their
283	incompetence. This ultimately boils down to misrepresentation, in that
284	the student didn't accurately represent their competence to the
285	employer in the first place.
286	</P>
287
288	<P>
289	The negative repercussions could be more significant depending on the
290	nature of the employment of the student. If the student was engaged in
291	a role that may have a direct impact on the public, this incompetence
292	could, in the worst case, directly impact on other peoples lives.
293	</P>
294
295	<P>
296	The other victim is the ANU, as whilst the student is seen to have
297	exited successfully from one of its degree programs, the student's
298	actual competency is probably lower than the employer would expect for
299	a degree-holder. This then lowers the value of a degree in the
300	employer's view, and gives the potential for employers to hold ANU
301	graduates in lower regard than perhaps they should me.
302	</P>
303
304	<H3>Case study 2: The employee with the work-related brilliant idea</H3>
305
306	<P>
307	In the case of the employee with the brilliant idea, if it is just an
308	idea, the organisation he works for cannot readily claim ownership of
309	it. If the employee develops anything on company time or resources,
310	based on that idea, then it rightly becomes property of the
311	organisation. If this is the case, and the employee wishes to take the
312	idea outside of the organisation, the only ethical thing to do would
313	be to seek permission from the employer to do so. Anything less would
314	constitute theft of the organisation's intellectual property.
315	</P>
316
317	<P>
318	There is nothing stopping the employee from using the idea for
319	improvement within the company he is working for, though. If the idea
320	he has had can be applied to other projects within his organisation,
321	then he is only being dilligent by raising the idea as an enhancement
322	to existing processes.
323	</P>
324
325	<H2>Bibliography</H2>
326
327	<P>
328	ACS Code of Ethics, Australian Computing Society, 2003,
329	http://www.acs.org.au/static/national/pospaper/acs131.htm
330	</P>
331
332	<P>
333	ACS Code of Professional Conduct And Professional Ethics, Australian
334	Computing Society, 2003,
335	http://www.acs.org.au/static/national/pospaper/codeprof.htm
336	</P>
337
338	<P>
339	ACM Code of Ethics, Association for Computing Machinery, 1992,
340	http://www.acm.org/serving/se/code.htm
341	</P>
342
343	<P>
344	IEEE Code of Ethics, Institute of Electrical and Electronic
345	Engineers, 1990,
346	http://www.ieee.org/portal/index.jsp?pageID=corp_level1&path=about/whatis&file=code.xml&xsl=generic.xsl
347	</P>
348
349	<P>
350	Academic Honesty in Learning and Teaching, The Australian National
351	University, 2003,
352	http://info.anu.edu.au/policies/Codes_Of_Practice/Education/Other/Academic_Honesty.asp
353	</P>
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355
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